2.1 Climate Change and Energy Security: Theoretical Foundations

The climate change–energy security risks nexus is intricate and multifaceted, with green patents, institutional quality, and human capital emerging as pivotal mechanisms to mitigate these risks. The environmental economics literature has extensively examined the complex relationships between climate variables, technological innovation, and energy systems, providing crucial insights into how environmental degradation and energy security intersect (Caglar et al. 2023; Pata, Kartal, et al. 2023). Studies have demonstrated that information and communication technologies (ICT) can effectively mitigate environmental degradation across technologically advanced nations, while the role of renewable energy technologies in emissions reduction remains contested (U. K. Pata and Yurtkuran 2022). Furthermore, research on environmental regulations reveals their critical importance in promoting sustainability, though their effectiveness varies significantly across different economic contexts and policy frameworks (Caglar et al. 2023). Energy security—defined as affordable, uninterrupted access to reliable to energy—is increasingly jeopardized by the impacts of climate change. Rising global temperatures have intensified cooling demands in residential, commercial, and industrial sectors, placing unprecedented strain on energy grids during peak periods (Mideksa and Kallbekken 2010). This heightened demand has already led to grid failures in regions experiencing extreme heatwaves, with cascading effects on critical services and economic activity. Additionally, the growing frequency and severity of extreme weather events—such as floods, hurricanes, droughts, and wildfires—pose direct threats to energy infrastructure, including transmission lines, power plants, and distribution networks, resulting in prolonged supply disruptions that can last for weeks or months (Ramião et al. 2023). The environmental economics literature further emphasizes that the effectiveness of different energy sources in achieving carbon neutrality varies considerably across countries and contexts. Research on major nuclear power nations reveals that while nuclear energy can reduce carbon emissions in some countries like Russia, renewable sources such as solar and wind power show differential impacts depending on national circumstances and implementation strategies (Kartal et al. 2023). These findings underscore the complexity of energy transition policies and highlight the need for country-specific approaches to achieving both energy security and environmental sustainability (Ugur Korkut Pata and Hizarci 2022; U. K. Pata et al. 2025).

Compounding these challenges, climate change has accelerated the global transition from fossil fuels to cleaner energy sources (Hrnčić et al. 2021). While this shift is essential for long-term sustainability, it introduces new vulnerabilities, such as the high upfront costs of renewable technologies, intermittency issues with wind and solar generation, and reliability concerns during the early adoption phases (Ciarreta et al. 2014). Recent geopolitical events, such as the Russia-Ukraine war, have further exposed vulnerabilities in global energy markets, underscoring the urgent need for resilient and diversified energy systems (Z. Liu et al. 2025).

2.2 Moderating Mechanisms in the Climate–ESR Nexus

Building on the resource-based view and institutional theory, we propose that the relationship between climate change (measured by CO2 emissions) and ESR is contingent upon three critical moderating factors: green patents, institutional quality, and human capital. These variables do not operate in isolation but form an interconnected system of capabilities and governance structures that collectively determine a nation's resilience to climate-energy challenges. The theoretical foundation rests on the premise that climate change creates external pressures on energy systems, but the magnitude of resulting energy security risks depends on internal adaptive capacities. Green patents represent technological capabilities, institutional quality reflects governance capabilities, and human capital embodies knowledge capabilities. These three dimensions work synergistically: technological solutions require institutional support for deployment and skilled human resources for development and implementation, while strong institutions facilitate both innovation and human capital development.

2.3 Human Capital as Knowledge Moderator

Human capital effectiveness is enhanced when combined with green technological solutions and strong institutional frameworks, creating synergistic effects.

Incorporating these mechanism analyses, Figure 1 illustrates this comprehensive framework of transmission channels linking climate change (measured by CO2 emissions) to ESR. It highlights how green patents, institutional quality, and human capital serve as critical intervention points, transforming climate challenges into opportunities for enhanced energy resilience. By strengthening these mechanisms, societies can navigate the interplay between climate change and ESR, ensuring reliable, affordable, and sustainable energy access in a rapidly changing world.

3.1 Data

Our analysis employs yearly measurements drawn from multiple databases. The core energy security data come from the Global Energy Institute, which maintains a comprehensive international risk index. This index evaluates energy security through four critical dimensions: economic stability, geopolitical factors, environmental impact, and system reliability. These components integrate 29 distinct metrics, encompassing aspects like power generation capacity, supply chains, operational efficiency, consumption patterns, and emission levels. To facilitate meaningful cross-country comparisons, the institute standardized all 29 metrics by setting 1980 as the baseline year with a value of 1000. Subsequent years' measurements are calibrated proportionally against this reference point. A higher index score indicates elevated ESR and reduced overall security.

For compatibility with our climate analysis, we transformed the annual energy security data into monthly intervals.2 The climate dataset incorporates various indicators discussed in academic research (Ben Ali et al. 2025; Chen et al. 2021; Gortan et al. 2024) such as carbon dioxide output and extreme climate events (Al-Maadid, Ben Ali, and Si Mohammed 2025; Iyke 2024). This climate information covers six GCC countries from 1990 through 2023. We enriched this combined dataset with contextual economic indicators that prior research has linked to energy security concerns. These include measures of economic development, foreign direct investment flows, international trade, and natural resource revenues. These factors provide crucial context about energy accessibility, cost dynamics, usage patterns, and potential vulnerabilities (Ahmadov and van der Borg 2019; Morikawa 2012; Sadorsky 2011). Table 1 presents descriptive statistics for the variables in the study. The average ESR is 1356, with a maximum value of 1858, reflecting severe energy insecurity in nations such as Qatar, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia. These elevated ESR values indicate systemic vulnerabilities in energy systems across the sample. Meanwhile, CO2 emissions average 11.5 million metric tons (Mt), with peaks reaching 62.3 million Mt. Such high emission levels risk accelerating climate change, which could further destabilize energy security by intensifying resource scarcity and infrastructure disruptions. To address these intertwined challenges, our empirical analysis evaluates the effect of climate change on energy security and highlights the critical role of green patents, strong institutions, and human capital as effective policy tools.

To facilitate interpretation and meet modeling assumptions, all variables are log-linearized so coefficients can be read as elasticities. Variables that include zero values are transformed using log(x + 1), ensuring that observations with zero values remain in the sample without producing undefined log terms.

3.2 Model

In our analysis, we primarily assess climate change through the lens of CO2 emissions, selected for their direct association with the core mechanisms driving climate change, their reflection of anthropogenic activity, their measurable and comparable nature across temporal and spatial dimensions, and their interconnectedness with broader climate impacts. Additionally, we incorporate supplementary indicators of climate change, such as extreme weather events. Beyond climate-related variables, our model includes a suite of conditioning factors influencing energy security risk, such as GDP, TNRR, TO, POP, INDS, and REN. These predictors are integrated to address potential omitted variable bias, ensuring a robust empirical framework.

We employ a fixed effects estimator to estimate both models, which effectively controls unobserved heterogeneity across countries and over time that could otherwise bias the parameter estimates if unaddressed. This approach is particularly well suited to our analysis, as it enables us to focus on within-country variations over time by estimating individual country intercepts, without requiring assumptions about the stationarity of the variables. This choice is further justified by the structure of our data, where the number of time periods (T) substantially exceeds the number of countries (N). To ensure robustness, we also used an alternative estimator tailored for scenarios where T > N, in order to confirm that our findings remain consistent across estimation methods.3

4.1 Baseline Result

This section explores how climate change impacts ESR by estimating Equation (1) using a fixed effects approach, with the results summarized in Table 2. Prior studies (Luft et al. 2010) have suggested that the nexus between climate change and ESR may be constrained by a trade-off between cutting CO2 emissions and maintaining ESR. Accordingly, we use CO2 emissions as our primary climate change indicator, with Column (1) of Table 2 presenting the corresponding estimates. For robustness, Columns (2) through (5) offer alternative measures—including extreme temperature, precipitation, wind gusts, and drought events—which consistently confirm that a 1% rise in CO2 emissions is associated with a 0.038% increase in ESR.

This relationship is driven by several mechanisms. First, CO2 emissions can lead to extreme weather events that damage energy infrastructure and disrupt supply chains (Zhang et al. 2023). Second, high emissions often signal heavy reliance on fossil fuels, thereby exposing nations to geopolitical risks—as demonstrated by the global energy market disruptions following the Russia-Ukraine conflict (Hille and Angerpointner 2025). Third, dependence on environmentally harmful energy sources increases vulnerability during unexpected events, as witnessed during the COVID-19 pandemic (Ezeaku et al. 2021). Lastly, rising emissions heighten public demand for stricter emission standards, prompting energy system transformations that require significant investments and may increase operational costs for traditional producers, potentially affecting supply reliability and market stability (Battisti 2023; IRENA 2019; Panos et al. 2023).

In the GCC region, these dynamics have unique characteristics. The region ranks among the world's top 10 highest per capita CO2 emitters, with Qatar leading in 2023 at 36.5 tons per capita. This high emission rate is driven by energy-intensive desalination processes, extensive air conditioning in extreme desert climates, and fossil fuel-dependent industrial sectors (Dawoud 2005; Moossa et al. 2022; WB 2013) (Figure 2).

Despite being major oil and gas exporters, GCC nations are increasingly aware of the ESR posed by climate change. For instance, the UAE's Energy Strategy 2050 aims for a 50% clean energy mix, while Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030 plans to develop 60 GW of renewable energy capacity (Al-Mekaimi 2025). Moreover, rising sea levels threaten critical coastal infrastructure such as Qatar's Ras Laffan LNG terminal and the UAE's Fujairah oil export hub (IRENA 2023). Initiatives like Saudi Arabia's circular carbon economy framework, along with significant investments in solar projects (e.g., Abu Dhabi's 2 GW Al Dhafra plant and Saudi Arabia's green hydrogen efforts at the NEOM project), exemplify the region's strategic efforts to balance hydrocarbon production with emission reduction (IRENA 2023).

Turning to controlling factors, our analysis reveals that larger GDP correlates with enhanced energy security, as wealthier nations have the financial capacity to invest in diverse and resilient energy infrastructures. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has noted that a robust economy facilitates the green transition by reducing reliance on fossil fuels (Kim 2024; Tansel Tugcu and Menegaki 2024). In contrast, higher levels of industrialization tend to increase ESR. Industrial growth—especially in energy-intensive sectors such as manufacturing and mining—escalates energy demand, potentially straining supplies and infrastructure. For example, research on Turkey's energy security indicates that unchecked industrial expansion can exacerbate long-term energy vulnerabilities (Karasoy 2023). Additionally, population growth intensifies energy consumption patterns and can further stress energy systems, contributing to higher vulnerability indices (Morikawa 2012).

Furthermore, the abundant natural resources in the GCC significantly bolster energy security by generating substantial hydrocarbon revenues. These funds are reinvested in diversifying energy sources and upgrading infrastructure; for instance, Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030 aims to develop 60 GW of renewable energy, while the UAE's Energy Strategy 2050 targets a 50% clean energy share (Al-Mekaimi 2025). However, this resource wealth also poses challenges, such as overreliance on hydrocarbons and potential environmental degradation. Initiatives like Kuwait's Vision 2035 seek to address these challenges by promoting economic diversification and sustainable energy investments, an approach supported by findings from Chen et al. (2024), who observed that in 27 highly energy-consuming economies, resource abundance helps mitigate ESR. Nonetheless, the relationship between natural resource endowments and energy security is complex. While resource rents can promote energy diversification and support the development of infrastructure, they can also pose risks such as the resource curse, sociopolitical unrest, and ecological harm (Ahmadov and van der Borg 2019).

Our econometric analysis indicates that renewable energy significantly reduces ESR in the GCC region; this can be explained through multiple interconnected channels, as supported by recent studies (Giuli 2022; Khan et al. 2024; Tansel Tugcu and Menegaki 2024): (1) Renewable energy decreases reliance on imported fossil fuels, mitigating risks tied to price volatility and supply disruptions. For example, countries expanding renewables like solar and wind reduce exposure to geopolitical tensions in oil and gas markets. This diversification enhances energy independence and stabilizes supply chains—as seen in Saudi Arabia's 60 GW renewable target under Vision 2030, (2) By curbing greenhouse gas emissions, renewables address climate-related risks (e.g., extreme weather damaging infrastructure) that threaten long-term energy stability. This aligns with studies showing renewables counteract energy security threats posed by climate change, and (3) Electrification and renewable adoption reduce weaponization risks associated with fossil fuels (e.g., trade embargoes). Decentralized renewable systems also limit vulnerability to centralized infrastructure attacks or market manipulation. However, for the GCC to fully reap these benefits, its transition must carefully balance its hydrocarbon-based economy with sustainable investments.

Trade integration enhances energy security in the GCC region by diversifying supply chains and attracting infrastructure investments. However, this integration also introduces vulnerabilities, such as heightened foreign energy dependency and exposure to geopolitical disruptions—evident in recent global conflicts. Additionally, trade-driven energy consumption patterns and environmental externalities, including transportation emissions and ecological risks, amplify systemic pressures on energy systems (Sadorsky 2011).

4.2 Mechanism Results

While our baseline results establish a clear link between CO2 emissions (as a proxy for climate change drivers) and increased ESR, it is crucial to understand factors that might mitigate this adverse relationship. Climate change impacts, largely driven by fossil fuel energy systems, can theoretically be buffered by advancements in sustainable energy, effective governance, and a capable workforce. Energy generated using patented green technologies avoids GHG emissions, while strong institutional frameworks and skilled human capital can facilitate the transition to cleaner energy and enhance adaptation capabilities, thereby reducing both CO2 emissions and the vulnerability of energy systems to climate impacts.

To investigate these potential moderating effects, we examine how green patents, institutional quality, and human capital influence the climate change–ESR nexus. We estimate Equations (2-4), which incorporate interaction terms between CO2 emissions and each of these factors. The results are presented in Table 3.

4.2.4 Threshold Effect

To gain a clearer understanding of how green patents, institutional quality, and human capital mediate the climate change–ESR relationship, we calculated the conditional marginal effects of CO2 emissions on ESR at varying levels of these moderators (visualized in Figure 3, based on Table 3 estimates). These plots compellingly illustrate that the detrimental impact of rising CO2 emissions on energy security is not uniform; it is significantly conditioned by a country's innovative capacity, governance effectiveness, and workforce skills. The analysis reveals distinct thresholds for each moderator: approximately 1.43 for green patents, 0.03 for institutional quality, and 0.58 for human capital. These thresholds represent critical junctures.

• Below the threshold: In countries where GP, IQ, or HC levels fall below these respective thresholds, the marginal effect of CO2 emissions on ESR remains positive and significant. In practical terms, this means that in environments with limited green innovation, weaker governance, or lower skill levels, the energy system is more directly vulnerable to climate change drivers—increased emissions translate more readily into heightened ESR (e.g., supply disruptions from extreme weather, instability from fossil fuel dependence).
• Above the threshold: Conversely, once a country surpasses these threshold levels, the positive marginal effect of CO2 emissions on ESR diminishes substantially, becoming statistically insignificant or potentially even negative in some ranges according to the model. This signifies that possessing sufficient innovative capacity, robust institutions, or high human capital equips a nation with the necessary tools and resilience to effectively counteract the energy security threats posed by climate change. The energy system becomes buffered, capable of adapting through technological deployment, sound policy, and skilled management, thus weakening or breaking the direct link between rising emissions and increased vulnerability.

In conclusion, the existence of these thresholds dramatically underscores that the impact of climate change on ESR is not predetermined. Proactive and strategic development of green innovation ecosystems, robust and adaptive institutions, and high levels of human capital can significantly mitigate associated risks. For the GCC, recognizing and strategically addressing these thresholds is paramount to successfully navigating the energy transition and building a resilient energy future in the face of climate change.

4.3 Robustness Test

4.4 Asymmetric Effect

This research implements the method of moments quantile regression (MMQR) framework established by Machado and Santos Silva (2019) to evaluate the potentially asymmetric effects of climate change—operationalized through CO2 emissions—on ESR across GCC countries. While our previous analyses documented linear relationships between climate change indicators and ESR, this study advances the literature by investigating non-linear patterns across the ESR distribution spectrum. Given the substantial heterogeneity in ESR profiles among GCC member states, we examine whether climate change impacts exhibit systematic variation across different ESR quantiles. The MMQR methodological approach allows us to determine if climate change exerts differential effects contingent upon underlying ESR conditions (Bergougui 2025b, 2025c). Our hypothesis of asymmetric relationships would be substantiated if the marginal impact of climate change on ESR demonstrates dependence on the position within the ESR distribution. To provide comprehensive coverage, our analytical framework encompasses the 10th through 90th percentiles of the ESR distribution. Figure 4 presents the outcomes of the panel quantile model, where the coefficients for CO2 emissions are consistently positive across all quantiles examined. These results corroborate our baseline regression findings and indicate an intensification of the marginal suppressive effect as one moves toward higher ESR quantiles. Consequently, this evidence suggests that the positive nexus between climate change and ESR is particularly pronounced in regions with elevated ESR levels, potentially undermining energy security frameworks and resilience within the energy sector.

5.1 High vs. Low GDP Countries

GDP represents the economic scale of a nation, shaping its ability to allocate resources for robust energy infrastructure while also reflecting its role in contributing to climate change via CO2 emissions. Countries with higher GDP levels typically have greater financial and institutional resources to develop robust energy systems. However, these nations also tend to produce higher CO2 emissions, exacerbating climate change and increasing ESR. To examine these dynamics, we divide the sample into two groups: countries with GDP above the median (top half) and those below the median (bottom half). This stratification allows us to assess whether economic size moderates the link between climate change and ESR.

Table 8, columns (1–2), display the outcomes of the regression analysis based on Equation (2), segmented by nations with smaller and larger GDPs. For countries with lower GDPs, the influence of climate change—quantified through CO2 emissions—on ESR shows no statistically significant effect (coefficient = 0.0087, p > 0.10). This may reflect their limited capacity to invest in advanced energy infrastructure and their reliance on non-renewable energy sources, which could buffer short-term risks but increase long-term vulnerabilities. In contrast, for higher GDP countries, a one-unit increase in the climate change variable is associated with a 0.1744 unit increase in ESR (p < 0.01). This suggests that despite greater resources, larger economies are more exposed to the adverse effects of climate change on energy security.

Further analysis in Columns (3) through (8) of Table 8 incorporates interaction terms with institutional quality, green patents, and human capital. In higher GDP countries, investments in green patents, institutional quality, and human capital significantly moderate the impact of climate change on ESR. For example, the negative CO2*GP interaction term (−0.0452, p < 0.05) in Column (6) indicates that green innovations reduce vulnerability in wealthier nations. However, governance challenges such as corruption and political instability in some high GDP countries may undermine these benefits, as suggested by the positive CO2*IQ interaction term (0.0676, p < 0.01) in Column (4). These findings highlight the complex interplay between economic output, climate change, and energy security.

5.2 High vs. Low Population Growth Countries

Population growth intensifies climate change by increasing resource demand, waste generation, and CO2 emissions, thereby complicating efforts to maintain energy security (Ganivet 2020). Since countries experience population growth at different rates, these variations may influence the weakness of their energy systems to climate change and the effectiveness of mitigation strategies such as institutional quality, green innovations, and human capital.

To investigate this, we divide the sample into two groups: countries with population growth rates above the median (faster growth) and those below the median (slower growth). Columns (1–2) in Table 9 present the results obtained from estimating Equation (2) for the specified groups. In countries with slower population growth, the impact of climate change on ESR is statistically insignificant (coefficient = 0.0027, p > 0.10). Conversely, in countries with faster population growth, a one-unit increase in the climate change variable is associated with a 0.1773 unit increase in ESR (p < 0.01), indicating greater vulnerability. Columns (3) and (4) of Table 9 include interaction terms with institutional quality. In slower-growing countries, strong institutions mitigate the impact of climate change on ESR, as shown by the negative and significant CO2*IQ interaction term (−0.2246, p < 0.01).

However, in faster-growing countries, institutional quality has little effect (CO2*IQ = −0.0288, p > 0.10), suggesting that rapid population growth may overwhelm governance capacity. Columns (5) through (8) further explore interactions with green patents and human capital, revealing that eco-friendly innovations and skilled workforces demonstrate reduced effectiveness in mitigating ESR in nations experiencing accelerated growth. For instance, the CO2*GP term (0.1613, p < 0.01) in Column (6) indicates that green patents significantly moderate risks in faster-growing nations.

Figure 5 has been developed to provide a detailed visual representation of the interplay between climate change and ESR. This diagram maps out the various channels through which climate change influences ESR, thus offering a clearer understanding of these multifaceted relationships.

6.1 Conclusion

The nexus between climate change and ESR represents a critical challenge for the GCC region, with important theoretical and practical implications for these hydrocarbon-dependent economies. Within the GCC context, climate change threatens energy infrastructure through extreme weather events and environmental disruptions, undermining the reliability, accessibility, and affordability of energy supplies across these nations. Simultaneously, the region's traditional strategies to bolster energy security through carbon-heavy resources intensify CO2 emissions, perpetuating a cycle that accelerates climate change and further destabilizes regional energy systems. For GCC countries specifically, theoretical solutions such as advancements in green technology, robust governance, and enhanced human capital development offer potential pathways to reduce climate-induced energy security pressures. However, empirical evidence supporting these relationships within the GCC regional context has been limited. To address this knowledge gap, our research integrates newly compiled datasets on climate change indicators, energy security, green innovation, institutional quality, and human capital across GCC countries during 1990 to 2023.

Our findings demonstrate that within the GCC region, climate change markedly heightens ESR—a conclusion that holds robustly across diverse model specifications, including sensitivity analyses, alternative variable selections, and rigorous endogeneity checks. Moreover, our study reveals that for GCC economies, green patents, strong institutions, and human capital can substantially weaken the adverse effects of climate change on energy security. Our analysis identifies critical thresholds specific to the GCC context—namely, 1.43 for green patents, 0.03 for institutional quality, and 0.58 for human capital—that act as turning points for these economies. Below these levels, rising emissions directly amplify ESR across GCC nations. Once these thresholds are surpassed, however, GCC countries are better equipped to leverage innovation, adaptive policies, and skilled human resources, effectively decoupling emissions from energy security risks. Further analysis reveals that within the GCC regional context, the effectiveness of these mediating factors depends heavily on economic and demographic conditions. Regarding economic development, we observe patterns specific to GCC economies that challenge conventional assumptions. Climate change significantly elevates ESR in higher-GDP GCC economies, while its effect in relatively lower-GDP GCC countries remains statistically negligible. In lower-GDP GCC settings, stronger institutional quality mitigates climate change impacts, whereas in high-GDP GCC countries, better governance unexpectedly amplifies risks—potentially reflecting these advanced GCC economies' greater reliance on complex, climate-sensitive energy systems. Our analysis of population dynamics within the GCC reveals equally important regional insights. Climate change impacts on ESR are more pronounced in GCC nations experiencing rapid population growth compared to those with slower demographic expansion. In GCC countries with lower population growth, institutional quality significantly mitigates climate impacts, while in high-growth GCC settings, governance improvements show limited effectiveness, likely overwhelmed by expanding population pressures on regional energy demands and infrastructure.

6.2 Policy Implications for GCC Countries

Our findings have significant policy implications specifically for GCC countries, where traditional reliance on fossil fuels has been central to economic prosperity and energy security strategies. The evidence clearly demonstrates that for the GCC region, climate change is a major driver intensifying ESR, requiring GCC policymakers to expedite transitions from carbon-intensive sources to sustainable alternatives tailored to regional conditions. Given the GCC's abundant solar resources and expansive territories, diversifying the regional energy mix toward solar and wind power represents a critical opportunity to stabilize energy systems while contributing to global climate mitigation efforts. Recognizing the unique economic and demographic dynamics across GCC economies, policy interventions must be specifically designed for regional realities, adapting strategies to the GCC's established energy infrastructures and rapid population growth patterns. For GCC countries, strengthening institutional frameworks and enhancing human capital have proven vital in buffering regional energy systems against emission-related destabilization. Therefore, targeted investments in green technology, governance reforms, and education are paramount for the GCC region. To stimulate this transformation across GCC economies, governments should implement comprehensive supportive measures addressing regional financial and institutional barriers. GCC-specific recommendations include: offering financial incentives like grants and subsidies to attract investments in regional renewable energy projects; streamlining regulatory reforms to ensure renewable energy initiatives progress efficiently within GCC regulatory frameworks; and fostering public-private partnerships that leverage the region's capital markets and expertise for large-scale clean energy development. Additionally, creating specialized green financial instruments—such as Islamic green bonds aligned with regional financial principles and GCC-focused renewable energy investment funds—can enhance market stability across the region.

Complementing these measures, GCC countries should prioritize community engagement and public education initiatives to foster regional acceptance of sustainable energy transitions. Enhancing local workforce capabilities through targeted education and reskilling programs will reduce the region's reliance on expatriate labor while building indigenous talent pools capable of sustaining clean energy sectors across GCC economies. Finally, by strengthening regional cooperation on climate initiatives and actively participating in international agreements, GCC countries can reinforce their collective role in sustainable energy development, effectively balancing economic diversification with environmental resilience to safeguard long-term energy security across the region.